1. Field of the Invention
The present invention is related to reflected light analysis. More particularly, the present invention is related to the use of reflected spectral imaging to perform non-invasive analysis of a subject's vascular system. The present invention is also related to the use of cross-polarizers in reflected spectral imaging analysis.
2. Related Art
Widely accepted medical school doctrine teaches that the complete blood count including the white blood cell differential (CBC+Diff) is one of the best tests to assess a patient's overall health. With it, a physician can detect or diagnose anemia, infection, blood loss, acute and chronic diseases, allergies, and other conditions. CBC+Diff analyses provide comprehensive information on constituents in blood, including the number of red cells, the hematocrit, the hemoglobin concentration, and indices that portray the size, shape, and oxygen-carrying characteristics of the entire red blood cell (RBC) population. The CBC+Diff also includes the number and types of white blood cells and the number of platelets. The CBC+Diff is one of the most frequently requested diagnostic tests with about two billion done in the United States per year.
A conventional CBC+Diff test is done in an "invasive" manner in which a sample of venous blood is drawn from a patient through a needle, and submitted to a laboratory for analysis. For example, a phlebotomist (an individual specially trained in drawing blood) collects a sample of venous blood into a tube containing an anticoagulant to prevent the blood from clotting. The sample is then sent to a hematology laboratory to be processed, typically on automated, multiparameter analytical instruments, such as those manufactured by Coulter Diagnostics of Miami, Fla. The CBC+Diff test results are returned to the requesting physician, typically on the next day.
In medical diagnosis it is often necessary to measure other types of blood components, such as non-cellular constituents present in the plasma component of blood. Such constituents can include, for example, blood gases and bilirubin. Bilirubin is a reddish to yellow pigment produced in the metabolic breakdown of hemoglobin and other proteins. Bilirubin is removed from the blood by the liver and is excreted from the body. However, the livers of newborn children, especially premature babies, cannot process bilirubin effectively.
The birth process often results in extensive bruising, resulting in blood escaping into the tissues where it is broken down metabolically. For this and other medical causes, bilirubin may accumulate in the blood stream. If bilirubin levels rise high enough, it begins to be deposited in other body tissues causing jaundice. Its first appearance is in the eye. At still higher levels, deposition begins in deeper tissues, including the brain, and can result in permanent brain damage.
The most common method for bilirubin analysis is through an in vitro process. In such an in vitro process, a blood sample is invasively drawn from the patient. The formed elements (red blood cells and other cells) are separated by centrifugation and the remaining fluid is reacted chemically and analyzed spectrophotometrically.
Invasive techniques, such as for conventional CBC+Diff tests and bilirubin analysis, pose particular problems for newborns because their circulatory system is not yet fully developed. Blood is typically drawn using a "heel stick" procedure wherein one or more punctures are made in the heel of the newborn, and blood is repeatedly squeezed out into a collecting tube. This procedure is traumatic even for an infant in good health. More importantly, this procedure poses the risk of having to do a blood transfusion because of the low total blood volume of the infant. The total blood volume of the newborn infant is 60-70 cc/kg body weight. Thus, the total blood volume of low birth weight infants (under 2500 grams) cared for in newborn intensive care units ranges from 45-175 cc. Because of their low blood volume and delay in production of red cells after birth, blood sampling from preterm infants and other sick infants frequently necessitates transfusions for these infants. Blood bank use for transfusion of infants in neonatal intensive care units is second only to the usage for cardiothoracic surgery in blood banking requirements. In addition to newborns, invasive techniques are also particularly stressful for, and/or difficult to carry out on, children, elderly patients, bum patients, and patients in special care units.
A hierarchical relationship exists between the laboratory findings and those obtained at the physical examination. The demarcation between the physical findings of the patient and the laboratory findings are, in general, the result of technical limitations. For instance, in the diagnosis of anemia (defined as low hemoglobin concentration), it is frequently necessary to quantify the hemoglobin concentration or the hematocrit in order to verify the observation of pallor. Pallor is the lack of the pink color of skin which frequently signals the absence or reduced concentration of the heavily red pigmented hemoglobin. However, there are some instances in which pallor may result from other causes, such as constriction of peripheral vessels, or being hidden by skin pigmentation. Because certain parts of the integument are less affected by these factors, clinicians have found that the pallor associated with anemia can more accurately be detected in the mucous membrane of the mouth, the conjunctivae, the lips, and the nail beds. A device which is able to rapidly and non-invasively quantitatively determine the hemoglobin concentration directly from an examination of one or more of the foregoing areas would eliminate the need to draw a venous blood sample to ascertain anemia. Such a device would also eliminate the delay in waiting for the laboratory results in the evaluation of the patient. Such a device also has the advantage of added patient comfort.
Soft tissue, such as mucosal membranes or unpigmented skin, do not absorb light in the visible and near-infrared, i.e., they do not absorb light in the spectral region where hemoglobin absorbs light. This allows the vascularization to be differentiated by spectral absorption from surrounding soft tissue background. However, the surface of soft tissue strongly reflects light and the soft tissue itself effectively scatters light after penetration of only 100 microns. Therefore, in vivo visualization of the circulation is difficult because of poor resolution, and generally impractical because of the complexities involved in compensating for multiple scattering and for specular reflection from the surface. Studies on the visualization of cells in the microcirculation consequently have been almost exclusively invasive, using a thin section (less than the distance for multiple scattering) of tissue containing the microcirculation, such as the mesentery, that can be observed by a microscope using light transmitted through the tissue section. Other studies have experimented with producing images of tissues from within the multiple scattering region by time gating (see, Yodh, A. and B. Chance, Physics Today, March, 1995, 34-40). However, the resolution of such images is limited because of the scattering of light, and the computations for the scattering factor are complex.
Spectrophotometry involves analysis based on the absorption or attenuation of electromagnetic radiation by matter at one or more wavelengths of light. The instruments used in this analysis are referred to as spectrophotometers. A simple spectrophotometer includes: source of radiation, such as, e.g., a light bulb; a means of spectral selection such as a monochromator containing a prism or grating or colored filter; and one or more detectors, such as, e.g., photocells, which measure the amount of light transmitted and/or reflected by the sample in the selected spectral region.
In opaque samples, such as solids or highly absorbing solutions, the radiation reflected from the surface of the sample may be measured and compared with the radiation reflected from a non-absorbing or white sample. If this reflectance intensity is plotted as a function of wavelength, it gives a reflectance spectrum. Reflectance spectra are commonly used in matching colors of dyed fabrics or painted surfaces. However, because of its limited range and inaccuracy, reflection spectrophotometry has been used primarily in qualitative rather than quantitative analysis. On the other hand, transmission spectrophotometry is conventionally used for quantitative analysis because Beer's law (inversely relating the logarithm of measured intensity linearly to concentration) can be used.
Reflective spectrophotometry is conventionally avoided for quantitative analysis because specularly reflected light from a surface limits the available contrast (black to white or signal to noise ratio), and, consequently, the measurement range and linearity. Because of surface effects, measurements are usually made at an angle to the surface. However, only for the special case of a Lambertian surface will the reflected intensity be independent of the angle of viewing. Light reflected from a Lambertian surface appears equally bright in all directions (cosine law). However, good Lambertian surfaces are difficult to obtain. Conventional reflection spectrophotometry presents an even more complicated relationship between reflected light intensity and concentration than exists for transmission spectrophotometry which follows Beer's law. Under the Kubelka-Munk theory applicable in reflection spectrophotometry, the intensity of reflected light can be related indirectly to concentration through the ratio of absorption to scattering.
Some imaging studies have been done in the reflected light of the microcirculation of the nail beds on patients with Raynauds, diabetes, and sickle cell disease. These studies were done to obtain experimental data regarding capillary density, capillary shape, and blood flow velocity, and were limited to gross physical measurements on capillaries. No spectral measurements, or individual cellular measurements, were made, and Doppler techniques were used to assess velocity. The non-invasive procedure employed in these studies could be applied to most patients, and in a comfortable manner.
One non-invasive device for in vivo analysis is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,998,533 to Winkelman. The Winkelman device uses image analysis and reflectance spectrophotometry to measure individual cell parameters such as cell size. Measurements are taken only within small vessels, such as capillaries where individual cells can be visualized. Because the Winkelman device takes measurements only in capillaries, measurements made by the Winkelman device will not accurately reflect measurements for larger vessels. This inaccuracy results from the constantly changing relationship of volume of cells to volume of blood in small capillaries resulting from the non-Newtonian viscosity characteristic of blood. Consequently, the Winkelman device is not capable of measuring the central or true hematocrit, or the total hemoglobin concentration, which depend upon the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to that of the whole blood in a large vessel such as a vein.
The Winkelman device measures the number of white blood cells relative to the number of red blood cells by counting individual cells as they flow through a micro-capillary. The Winkelman device depends upon accumulating a statistically reliable number of white blood cells in order to estimate the concentration. However, blood flowing through a micro-capillary will contain approximately 1000 red cells for every white cell, making this an impractical method. The Winkelman device does not provide any means by which platelets can be visualized and counted. Further, the Winkelman device does not provide any means by which the capillary plasma can be visualized, or the constituents of the capillary plasma quantified. The Winkelman device also does not provide a means by which abnormal constituents of blood, such as tumor cells, can be detected.
Thus, there is a need in the art for a device that provides for complete non-invasive in vivo analysis of the vascular system. There is a need for a device that provides for high resolution visualization of: blood cell components (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets); blood rheology; the vessels in which blood travels; and vascularization throughout the vascular system. There is a further need for a non-invasive device that allows quantitative determinations to be made for blood cells, normal and abnormal contents of blood cells, as well as for normal and abnormal constituents of blood plasma.